[Recommendations for the diagnosis and treatment of urinary tract infection in pediatrics. Part 2: Working group associated with the Antimicrobial Committee, Chilean Society of Infectology]. / Recomendaciones para diagnóstico y tratamiento de la infección del tracto urinario en pediatría. Parte 2: Grupo de trabajo asociado al Comité de Antimicrobianos, Sociedad Chilena de Infectología (SOCHINF).

The urinary tract infection (UTI) is one of the most common bacterial infections in childhood. An adequate diagnosis is essential to be able to carry out a rational, efficient and effective treatment, however, there is great heterogeneity in diagnostic methods, specifically in the study of antimicrobial susceptibility. The aim of these recommendations is to provide tools to homogenize the diagnosis criteria, susceptibility study and antimicrobial treatment of urinary tract infection in the pediatric population, with a rational use of antibiotics approach. In the first part, the recommendations regarding diagnosis were presented, such as sampling and cut-off points, as well as microbiological considerations for susceptibility study and management of UTI in pediatrics. This second part details the management of complications, UTI in special situations, and pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic considerations of antimicrobials to be prescribed in UTI.

[Recommendations for the diagnosis and treatment of urinary tract infection in pediatrics. Part 1: Working group associated with the Antimicrobial Committee, Chilean Society of Infectology]. / Recomendaciones para diagnóstico y tratamiento de la infección del tracto urinario en pediatría. Parte 1: Grupo de trabajo asociado al Comité de Antimicrobianos, Sociedad Chilena de Infectología (SOCHINF).

The urinary tract infection (UTI) is one of the most common bacterial infections in childhood. An adequate diagnosis is essential to be able to carry out a rational, efficient and effective treatment, however, there great heterogeneity in diagnostic methods, specifically in the study of antimicrobial susceptibility. The aim of these recommendations is to provide tools to homogenize the diagnosis criteria, susceptibility study and antimicrobial treatment of urinary tract infection in the pediatric population, with a rational use of antibiotics approach. In the first part, the recommendations regarding diagnosis are presented, such as sampling and cut-off points, as well as microbiological considerations for susceptibility study and management of UTI in pediatrics. The second part details the management of complications, UTI in special situations, and pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic considerations of antimicrobials to be prescribed in UTI.

FilmArray® Meningoencephalitis panel in the diagnosis of central nervous system infections: stewardship and cost analysis in a paediatric hospital in Chile.

BACKGROUND: Central nervous system (CNS) infection has been an ongoing concern in paediatrics. The FilmArray® Meningoencephalitis (FAME) panel has greater sensitivity in identifying the aetiology of CNS infections. This study's objective was to compare the aetiological identification and hospitalization costs among patients with suspected CNS infection before and after the use of FAME. METHODS: An analytical observational study was carried out using a retrospective cohort for the pre-intervention (pre-FAME use) period and a prospective cohort for the post-intervention (post-FAME use) period in children with suspected CNS infection. RESULTS: A total of 409 CSF samples were analysed, 297 pre-intervention and 112 post-intervention. In the pre-intervention period, a total of 85.5% of patients required hospitalization, and in the post-intervention period 92.7% required hospitalization (p < 0.05). Median of ICU days was significantly lower in the post-intervention period than it was in the pre-intervention period. The overall positivity was 9.4 and 26.8%, respectively (p < 0.001). At ages 6 months and below, we found an increase in overall positivity from 2.6 to 28.1%, along with an increased detection of viral agents, S. agalactiae, S. pneumoniae, and N. meningitidis. The use of this diagnostic technology saved between $2916 and $12,240 USD in the cost of ICU bed-days. FAME use provided the opportunity for more accurate aetiological diagnosis of the infections and thus the provision of adequate appropriate treatment. CONCLUSIONS: The cost/benefit ratio between FAME cost and ICU bed-day cost savings is favourable. Implementation of FAME in Chilean public hospitals saves public resources and improves the accuracy of aetiological diagnosis.

Recomendaciones para diagnóstico y tratamiento de la infección del tracto urinario en pediatría. Parte 1: Grupo de trabajo asociado al Comité de Antimicrobianos, Sociedad Chilena de Infectología (SOCHINF) / Recommendations for the diagnosis and treatment of urinary tract infection in pediatrics. Part 1: Working group associated with the Antimicrobial Committee, Chilean Society of Infectology

Resumen La infección del tracto urinario (ITU) es una de las infecciones bacterianas más frecuentes en la infancia. Un adecuado diagnóstico es esencial para poder realizar un tratamiento racional, eficiente y eficaz; sin embargo, existe gran heterogeneidad en los métodos diagnósticos, específicamente en el estudio de la susceptibilidad antimicrobiana. El objetivo de estas recomendaciones es entregar herramientas para uniformar los criterios diagnósticos, el estudio de susceptibilidad bacteriana in vitro y el tratamiento antimicrobiano de la ITU en la población pediátrica, con un enfoque de uso racional de los antimicrobianos. En esta primera parte, se presentan las recomendaciones en cuanto a cómo obtener una adecuada muestra de orina, el diagnóstico de laboratorio incluyendo puntos de corte -unidades formadoras de colonias/mL de orina-, además de consideraciones microbiológicas para el estudio de susceptibilidad y finalmente, el manejo de la ITU en pediatría. En la segunda parte se detalla el tratamiento antimicrobiano de sus complicaciones, el manejo de ITU en situaciones especiales y consideraciones farmacocinéticas y farmacodinámicas de los antimicrobianos a indicar en ITU.

Abstract The urinary tract infection (UTI) is one of the most common bacterial infections in childhood. An adequate diagnosis is essential to be able to carry out a rational, efficient and effective treatment, however, there great heterogeneity in diagnostic methods, specifically in the study of antimicrobial susceptibility. The aim of these recommendations is to provide tools to homogenize the diagnosis criteria, susceptibility study and antimicrobial treatment of urinary tract infection in the pediatric population, with a rational use of antibiotics approach. In the first part, the recommendations regarding diagnosis are presented, such as sampling and cut-off points, as well as microbiological considerations for susceptibility study and management of UTI in pediatrics. The second part details the management of complications, UTI in special situations, and pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic considerations of antimicrobials to be prescribed in UTI.

Factores demográficos y comorbilidades asociadas a severidad de COVID-19 en un hospital chileno: el rol clave del nivel socioeconómico / Comorbidities and demographic factors associated with severe COVID-19 outcomes in a Chilean hospital

Background: Several risk factors are associated with COVID-19 severity and death, such as advanced age, male sex, and the presence of comorbidities. Aim: To study the effect of these risk factors and socioeconomic variables on the outcome of Chilean patients admitted with COVID-19 to a Chilean public hospital. Material and Methods: Review of medical records of patients admitted to a Chilean public hospital with a positive PCR test for COVID-19, Chile from March to June 2020. The outcome variable was severity (ICU admission or death). The exposure variables were age, sex, socioeconomic level, and comorbidities. A multivariable logistic regression analysis was performed. Results: Of 1,141 confirmed cases, 266 cases had a severe evolution (23.3%), including 147 deaths (fatality 12.9%). Advanced age and low socioeconomic status were the variables most strongly associated with severity. An age of 80 years or over had an odds ratio (OR) = 11.1 [95% confidence intervals (CI) 5.22-23.53]. The OR [95% CI] for a low socioeconomic level was 3.1 [1.1-8.5]. The figure for male sex was 2.13 [1.5-3.0], for chronic kidney disease was 2.65 [1.49-4.73], for obesity was 2.36 [1.65-3.39], and for diabetes 1.78 [1.22-2.61]. No significant association with severity was found for high blood pressure, chronic pulmonary disease, cardiovascular disease, or smoking. Conclusions: Following age, a low socioeconomic level was the factor with the higher association with a poor outcome or severe evolution of COVID-19.

[Panton-Valentine leukocidin toxin associated methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus infection: a report of two pediatric cases]. / Staphylococcus aureus sensible a meticilina, productor de leucocidina de Panton Valentine. A propósito de dos casos pediátricos de infección osteoarticular.

Staphylococcus aureus colonizes the nasopharynx in one third of healthy individuals and is also responsible for several infections in pediatrics such as endocarditis, pneumonia and osteoarticular infections. It has several virulence mechanisms, such as Panton Valentine leukocidin (PVL), which is an exotoxin that causes cell death. It is commonly related to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and more serious pulmonary and musculoskeletal infections. However, PVL is not exclusive to MRSA. Two clinical cases of patients with infection by methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus producing this exotoxin are presented.

Staphylococcus aureus sensible a meticilina, productor de leucocidina de Panton Valentine: a propósito de dos casos pediátricos de infección osteoarticular / Panton-Valentine leukocidin toxin associated methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus infection: a report of two pediatric cases

Resumen Staphylococcus aureus coloniza la nasofaringe en un tercio de los individuos sanos y además es causante de infecciones graves en pediatría, como endocarditis, neumonía e infecciones osteoarticulares. Posee varios mecanismos de virulencia, siendo la leucocidina de Panton Valentine (LPV) uno de ellos, una exotoxina que causa muerte celular. Su producción está comúnmente relacionada con Staphylococcus aureus resistente a meticilina (SARM) e infecciones pulmonares y musculo-esqueléticas graves. Sin embargo, la producción de LPV no es exclusiva de SARM. Se presentan dos casos clínicos de pacientes con infección por Staphylococcus aureus sensible a meticilina productora de esta exotoxina.

Abstract Staphylococcus aureus colonizes the nasopharynx in one third of healthy individuals and is also responsible for several infections in pediatrics such as endocarditis, pneumonia and osteoarticular infections. It has several virulence mechanisms, such as Panton Valentine leukocidin (PVL), which is an exotoxin that causes cell death. It is commonly related to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and more serious pulmonary and musculoskeletal infections. However, PVL is not exclusive to MRSA. Two clinical cases of patients with infection by methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus producing this exotoxin are presented.

[Comorbidities and demographic factors associated with severe COVID-19 outcomes in a Chilean hospital]. / Factores demográficos y comorbilidades asociadas a severidad de COVID-19 en un hospital chileno: el rol clave del nivel socioeconómico.

BACKGROUND: Several risk factors are associated with COVID-19 severity and death, such as advanced age, male sex, and the presence of comorbidities. AIM: To study the effect of these risk factors and socioeconomic variables on the outcome of Chilean patients admitted with COVID-19 to a Chilean public hospital. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Review of medical records of patients admitted to a Chilean public hospital with a positive PCR test for COVID-19, Chile from March to June 2020. The outcome variable was severity (ICU admission or death). The exposure variables were age, sex, socioeconomic level, and comorbidities. A multivariable logistic regression analysis was performed. RESULTS: Of 1,141 confirmed cases, 266 cases had a severe evolution (23.3%), including 147 deaths (fatality 12.9%). Advanced age and low socioeconomic status were the variables most strongly associated with severity. An age of 80 years or over had an odds ratio (OR) = 11.1 [95% confidence intervals (CI) 5.22-23.53]. The OR [95% CI] for a low socioeconomic level was 3.1 [1.1-8.5]. The figure for male sex was 2.13 [1.5-3.0], for chronic kidney disease was 2.65 [1.49-4.73], for obesity was 2.36 [1.65-3.39], and for diabetes 1.78 [1.22-2.61]. No significant association with severity was found for high blood pressure, chronic pulmonary disease, cardiovascular disease, or smoking. CONCLUSIONS: Following age, a low socioeconomic level was the factor with the higher association with a poor outcome or severe evolution of COVID-19.

Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C): Report of the clinical and epidemiological characteristics of cases in Santiago de Chile during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the clinical and epidemiological characteristics of hospitalized children with multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) in Santiago, Chile. METHODS: This was an observational study of children with MIS-C (May 1 to June 24, 2020), in three pediatric hospitals in Santiago. Demographic characteristics and epidemiological data, medical history, laboratory tests, cardiology evaluations, treatment, and clinical outcomes were analyzed. RESULTS: Twenty-seven patients were admitted (median age 6, range 0-14 years). Sixteen of the 27 (59%) required intensive care unit admission; there were no deaths. Seventy-four percent had no comorbidities, and the median number of days of symptoms before admission was 4 (range 2-9 days). Gastrointestinal symptoms were the most frequent, and inflammatory markers were increased at admission. A recent severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection was detected in 82% of cases. The severe group showed significantly lower hemoglobin and albumin levels, decreased platelet counts, and higher d-dimer during disease evolution. Echocardiography showed abnormalities (myocardial, pericardial, or coronary) in 12 patients (46%) during their hospital stay. Anti-inflammatory treatment (immunoglobulin and/or corticosteroids) was prescribed in 24 patients. MIS-C appeared in clusters weeks after the peak of SARS-CoV-2 cases, especially in the most vulnerable areas of Santiago. CONCLUSIONS: This study describes the first series (n = 27) of children with MIS-C in a Latin American country, showing favorable clinical outcomes. Education and alerts are required for clinical teams to establish an early diagnosis and prompt treatment.

Efficacy of pre-emptive versus empirical antifungal therapy in children with cancer and high-risk febrile neutropenia: a randomized clinical trial.

Objectives: To compare the efficacy of pre-emptive versus empirical antifungal therapy in children with cancer, fever and neutropenia. Methods: This was a prospective, multicentre, randomized clinical trial. Children presenting with persistent high-risk febrile neutropenia at five hospitals in Santiago, Chile, were randomized to empirical or pre-emptive antifungal therapy. The pre-emptive group received antifungal therapy only if the persistent high-risk febrile neutropenia was accompanied by clinical, laboratory, imaging or microbiological pre-defined criteria. The primary endpoint was overall mortality at day 30 of follow-up. Secondary endpoints included invasive fungal disease (IFD)-related mortality, number of days of fever, days of hospitalization and use of antifungal drugs, percentage of children developing IFD, requiring modification of initial treatment strategy and need for ICU. The trial was registered with Registro Brasileiro de Ensaios Clínicos (ReBEC) under trial number RBR-3m9d74. Results: A total of 149 children were randomized, 73 to empirical therapy and 76 to pre-emptive therapy. Thirty-two out of 76 (42%) children in the pre-emptive group received antifungal therapy. The median duration of antifungal therapy was 11 days in the empirical arm and 6 days in the pre-emptive arm (P < 0.001), with similar overall mortality (8% in the empirical arm and 5% in the pre-emptive arm, P = 0.47). IFD-related mortality was the same in both groups (3%, P = 0.97), as were the percentage of children with IFD (12%, P = 0.92) and the number of days of fever (9, P = 0.76). The number of days of hospitalization was 19 in the empirical arm and 17 in the pre-emptive arm (P = 0.15) and the need for ICU was 25% in the empirical arm and 20% in the pre-emptive arm (P = 0.47). Conclusions: Pre-emptive antifungal therapy was as effective as empirical antifungal therapy in children with cancer, fever and neutropenia, significantly reducing the use of antifungal drugs.

[Microorganisms isolated from blood cultures in children with cancer and high-risk febrile neutropenia from five hospitals in Santiago, Chile, 2012-2015]. / Microorganismos aislados de hemocultivos en niños con cáncer y neutropenia febril de alto riesgo en cinco hospitales de Santiago, Chile, período 2012-2015.

BACKGROUND: Microorganisms isolated from blood cultures (BC) in patients with febrile neutropenia (NF) vary over time, requiring systematic monitoring to guide appropriate empirical therapy. AIM: To identify microorganisms isolated from BC and their antimicrobial resistance profile in children with cancer and high risk NF. METHOD: Prospective, multicenter study. The analysis included episodes of high-risk FN with positive BC in children under 18 years of age treated in five hospitals in Santiago, Chile, 2012-2015. RESULTS: A total of 206 microorganisms were analyzed in 185 episodes of high-risk FN. The main isolates were Gram negative bacilli (46.6%) and Gram positive cocci (45.1%) and the most frequent microorganisms were Escherichia coli (22.8%), coagulase negative Staphylococcus (18.0%) and Klebsiella spp. (16.5%). Escherichia coli and Klebsiella spp showed 4.2% and 67.6% resistance to third generation cephalosporins (cefotaxime/ceftriaxone), 10.6% and 40.6% resistance to fluoroquinolones (ciprofloxacin) and 2.1% and 26.5% to amikacin, respectively. Coagulase negative Staphylococcus and Staphylococcus aureus had 86.4% and 22.2% resistance to oxacillin, Streptococcus viridans group had 71% resistance to penicillin. DISCUSSION: This study updates the etiology and resistance profile of microorganisms isolated in BC from children with cancer and high risk FN, an essential tool for the adequate management of these patients.

Microorganismos aislados de hemocultivos en niños con cáncer y neutropenia febril de alto riesgo en cinco hospitales de Santiago, Chile, período 2012-2015 / Microorganisms isolated from blood cultures in children with cancer and high-risk febrile neutropenia from five hospitals in Santiago, Chile, 2012-2015

Resumen Antecedentes: Los microorganismos aislados de hemocultivos (HC) en pacientes con neutropenia febril (NF) varían en el tiempo, siendo necesaria su vigilancia para orientar una terapia empírica adecuada. Objetivo: Identificar microorganismos aislados de HC y su perfil de resistencia (R) a antimicrobianos en niños con cáncer y NF de alto riesgo. Método: Estudio prospectivo, multicéntrico de episodios de NF de alto riesgo en pacientes bajo 18 años de edad, de cinco hospitales en Santiago de Chile, 2012-2015. Análisis de HC positivos. Resultados: Se analizaron 206 microorganismos en 185 episodios de NF de alto riesgo con HC positivos. Los aislados principales fueron bacilos gramnegativos (BGN) (46,6%) y cocáceas grampositivas (CGP) (45,1%) y los microorganismos más frecuentes Escherichia coli (22,8%), Staphylococcus coagulasa negativa (18,0%) y Klebsiella spp (16,5%). En resistencia (R) a antimicrobianos destaca: E. coli y Klebsiella spp 4,2 y 67,6% R a cefalosporinas de tercera generación (cefotaxima/ceftriaxona) respectivamente, 10,6 y 40,6% R a ciprofloxacina y 2,1 y 26,5% a amikacina, respectivamente. S. coagulasa negativa y S. aureus 86,4% y 22,2% R a oxacilina, Streptococcus grupo viridans 71% R a penicilina. Discusión: Este estudio actualiza la etiología y el perfil de R de microorganismos aislados en HC de niños con cáncer y NF de alto riesgo, herramienta esencial para el adecuado manejo de estos pacientes.

Background: Microorganisms isolated from blood cultures (BC) in patients with febrile neutropenia (NF) vary over time, requiring systematic monitoring to guide appropriate empirical therapy. Aim: To identify microorganisms isolated from BC and their antimicrobial resistance profile in children with cancer and high risk NF. Method: Prospective, multicenter study. The analysis included episodes of high-risk FN with positive BC in children under 18 years of age treated in five hospitals in Santiago, Chile, 2012-2015. Results: A total of 206 microorganisms were analyzed in 185 episodes of high-risk FN. The main isolates were Gram negative bacilli (46.6%) and Gram positive cocci (45.1%) and the most frequent microorganisms were Escherichia coli (22.8%), coagulase negative Staphylococcus (18.0%) and Klebsiella spp. (16.5%). Escherichia coli and Klebsiella spp showed 4.2% and 67.6% resistance to third generation cephalosporins (cefotaxime/ceftriaxone), 10.6% and 40.6% resistance to fluoroquinolones (ciprofloxacin) and 2.1% and 26.5% to amikacin, respectively. Coagulase negative Staphylococcus and Staphylococcus aureus had 86.4% and 22.2% resistance to oxacillin, Streptococcus viridans group had 71% resistance to penicillin. Discussion: This study updates the etiology and resistance profile of microorganisms isolated in BC from children with cancer and high risk FN, an essential tool for the adequate management of these patients.

Susceptibilidad de enterobacterias a piperacilina/tazobactam en un hospital pediátrico de Chile / Enterobacteriaceae susceptibility to piperacillin/tazobactam in a Chilean pediatric hospital

Resumen Introducción: Las enterobacterias son bacilos gram-negativos responsables de infecciones graves en el ser humano. Se reporta una susceptibilidad en Klebsiella pneumoniae de 79,4% a piperacilina/tazobactam (PIP/TAZO) en hospitales pediátricos de Chile, pero según nuestro conocimiento, no existen datos publicados a la fecha respecto a la susceptibilidad de otras enterobacterias a PIP/TAZO en la población pediátrica chilena. Objetivo: Determinar la susceptibilidad in vitro a PIP/TAZO en cepas obtenidas de infecciones por Enterobacteriaceae en un hospital pediátrico de Chile. Material y Método: Estudio descriptivo y prospectivo de cepas de Enterobacteriaceae en Hospital de Niños Roberto del Río (HRRIO) entre 1 de enero de 2013 y el 27 de agosto de 2014. Se definió la susceptibilidad a PIP/TAZO por método de gradiente (E-test®) según puntos de corte CLSI 2014. Resultados: Se incluyeron 163 casos. El promedio de edad fue de 4 años 15 días. 70,6% de sexo femenino. El 79,7% de las cepas fueron aisladas en urocultivos. La susceptibilidad de Enterobacteriaceae a PIP/TAZO fue 95,1% (n = 155). La susceptibilidad intermedia fue 1,8% (n = 3). Discusión: Los aislados estudiados presentan alta susceptibilidad a PIP/TAZO. Este hallazgo puede explicarse por la baja circulación de microrganismos productores de BLEE y el limitado uso de PIP/TAZO en esta población pediátrica.

Introduction: Enterobacteriaceae are a group of gram-negative rods that can cause serious infections in humans. A susceptibility in Klebsiella pneumoniae of 79.4% to piperacillin/tazobactam (PIP/TAZO) is reported in pediatric hospitals in Chile. There is no published data published to date regarding PIP/TAZO susceptibility to other Enterobacteriaceae species in this population. Aim: To measure the in vitro PIP/TAZO susceptibility in Enterobacteriaceae isolates from patients in a pediatric hospital in Chile. Methods: Descriptive and prospective study of Enterobacteriaceae positive cultures from patients assisting to the "Hospital de niños Roberto del Río" (HRRIO) between January 2013 and August 2014. PIP/TAZO susceptibility was established by gradient diffusion method (E-test®) according to the 2014 CLSI standards. Results: 163 cases were included. The average age was 4 years and 15 days. 70.6% were female. 79.7% of samples were urine cultures. PIP/TAZO susceptibility in Enterobacteriaceae was 95.1% (n = 155). The intermediate susceptibility was 1.8% (n = 3). Discussion: The isolates studied present high susceptibility to PIP/TAZO. This finding could be explained by the fact that this population has not been exposed to this antimicrobial therapy and also the low rates for ESBL in pediatric infections.

[Enterobacteriaceae susceptibility to piperacillin/tazobactam in a Chilean pediatric hospital]. / Susceptibilidad de enterobacterias a piperacilina/tazobactam en un hospital pediátrico de Chile.

INTRODUCTION: Enterobacteriaceae are a group of gram-negative rods that can cause serious infections in humans. A susceptibility in Klebsiella pneumoniae of 79.4% to piperacillin/tazobactam (PIP/TAZO) is reported in pediatric hospitals in Chile. There is no published data published to date regarding PIP/TAZO susceptibility to other Enterobacteriaceae species in this population. AIM: To measure the in vitro PIP/TAZO susceptibility in Enterobacteriaceae isolates from patients in a pediatric hospital in Chile. METHODS: Descriptive and prospective study of Enterobacteriaceae positive cultures from patients assisting to the "Hospital de niños Roberto del Río" (HRRIO) between January 2013 and August 2014. PIP/TAZO susceptibility was established by gradient diffusion method (E-test®) according to the 2014 CLSI standards. RESULTS: 163 cases were included. The average age was 4 years and 15 days. 70.6% were female. 79.7% of samples were urine cultures. PIP/TAZO susceptibility in Enterobacteriaceae was 95.1% (n = 155). The intermediate susceptibility was 1.8% (n = 3). DISCUSSION: The isolates studied present high susceptibility to PIP/TAZO. This finding could be explained by the fact that this population has not been exposed to this antimicrobial therapy and also the low rates for ESBL in pediatric infections.

[Aspergillus fumigatus mediastinitis in an immunocompetent pediatric patient after heart surgery]. / Mediastinitis por Aspergillus fumigatus en un paciente pediátrico inmunocompetente posterior a una cardiocirugía.

Postsurgical aspergillosis occurs primarily in immunocompetent patients whose main predisposing factor is the loss of skin and mucosal integrity during surgery. Local infection tends to be destructive and refractory to treatment and relapses are common. It is important to consider aspergillosis in the differential diagnosis of slowly progressive and destructive surgical site infections with negative bacterial cultures. We present the case of a child who developed Aspergillus fumigatus mediastinitis months after heart surgery.

[Chilean consensus of prevention, diagnosis and treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea]. / Consenso chileno de prevención, diagnóstico y tratamiento de la diarrea asociada a Clostridium difficile.

BACKGROUND: Clostridium dijfficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD) has become very important due to the increase in its incidence, severity, recurrence and the associated economic burden. Having a national consensus guideline is essential to improve its management. OBJECTIVE: To build a multidisciplinary and evidence-based consensus in prevention, diagnosis and treatment of CDAD. METHODS: We convened a panel of experts in the field of infectious diseases, gastroenterology, evidence-based medicine and consensus methodology. The panel conducted a structured review of published literature in CDAD evaluating evidence levels and recommendation degree according to the methodology proposed by the GRADE working-group. A modified three-round Delphi technique was used to reach a consensus among the experts. RESULTS: A group of 16 experts was established, 12 of them answered 18 clinically relevant questions. The levels of agreement achieved by the panel of 16 experts were 79% in the first round and 100% in the second and third round. The main consensus recommendations in prevention are: restricting the use of proton-pump inhibitors, primary prophylaxis with probiotics in antibiotics users, education of health personnel, isolation for patients hospitalized with CDAD, and cleaning the rooms exposed to C. difficile with products based in chlorine or hydrogen peroxide. In the diagnosis: use of biology molecular-based techniques is preferred and if not available, glutamate dehydrogenase-based algorithms may be recommended. With regard to treatment: the use of oral metronidazole in mild-moderate CDAD and oral vancomycin in severe CDAD are recommended. Treat the first recurrence with the same antibiotics according to severity. In the case of second and subsequent recurrences consider prolonged therapy with vancomycin, rifaximin or fecal microbiota transplant. CONCLUSION: The first Chilean consensus on prevention, diagnosis and treatment of CDAD is presented, which is a major step in improving national standards in the management of this disease.

Mediastinitis por Aspergillus fumigatus en un paciente pediátrico inmunocompetente posterior a una cardiocirugía / Aspergillus fumigatus mediastinitis in an immunocompetent pediatric patient after heart surgery

Postsurgical aspergillosis occurs primarily in immunocompetent patients whose main predisposing factor is the loss of skin and mucosal integrity during surgery. Local infection tends to be destructive and refractory to treatment and relapses are common. It is important to consider aspergillosis in the differential diagnosis of slowly progressive and destructive surgical site infections with negative bacterial cultures. We present the case of a child who developed Aspergillus fumigatus mediastinitis months after heart surgery.

Consenso chileno de prevención, diagnóstico y tratamiento de la diarrea asociada a Clostridium difficile / Chilean consensus of prevention, diagnosis and treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea

Background: Clostridium dijfficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD) has become very important due to the increase in its incidence, severity, recurrence and the associated economic burden. Having a national consensus guideline is essential to improve its management. Objective: To build a multidisciplinary and evidence-based consensus in prevention, diagnosis and treatment of CDAD. Methods: We convened a panel of experts in the field of infectious diseases, gastroenterology, evidence-based medicine and consensus methodology. The panel conducted a structured review of published literature in CDAD evaluating evidence levels and recommendation degree according to the methodology proposed by the GRADE working-group. A modified three-round Delphi technique was used to reach a consensus among the experts. Results: A group of 16 experts was established, 12 of them answered 18 clinically relevant questions. The levels of agreement achieved by the panel of 16 experts were 79% in the first round and 100% in the second and third round. The main consensus recommendations in prevention are: restricting the use of proton-pump inhibitors, primary prophylaxis with probiotics in antibiotics users, education of health personnel, isolation for patients hospitalized with CDAD, and cleaning the rooms exposed to C. difficile with products based in chlorine or hydrogen peroxide. In the diagnosis: use of biology molecular-based techniques is preferred and if not available, glutamate dehydrogenase-based algorithms may be recommended. With regard to treatment: the use of oral metronidazole in mild-moderate CDAD and oral vancomycin in severe CDAD are recommended. Treat the first recurrence with the same antibiotics according to severity. In the case of second and subsequent recurrences consider prolonged therapy with vancomycin, rifaximin or fecal microbiota transplant. Conclusion: The first Chilean consensus on prevention, diagnosis and treatment of CDAD is presented, which is a major step in improving national standards in the management of this disease.

Introducción: La diarrea asociada a Clostridium difficile (DACD) ha adquirido gran relevancia debido al aumento en su incidencia, gravedad, capacidad de recurrencia y carga económica asociada. Contar con una guía de consenso local es fundamental para mejorar su manejo. Objetivo: Elaborar un consenso multidisciplinara y basado en la evidencia en la prevención, diagnóstico y tratamiento de la DACD. Métodos: Se convocó a un panel de expertos en el área de enfermedades infecciosas, gastroenterología, medicina basada en la evidencia y metodología de consenso. El panel realizó una revisión estructurada de la literatura científica publicada en DACD evaluando el nivel de la evidencia y recomendación utilizando el sistema GRADE. Una técnica de Delfi modificada de tres rondas fue utilizada para alcanzar un consenso entre los expertos. Resultados: Se estableció un grupo de 16 expertos, 12 de ellos respondieron 18 preguntas de relevancia clínica. Los niveles de acuerdo alcanzados por el panel de 16 expertos fueron de 79% en la primera ronda y 100% en la segunda y tercera ronda. Las principales recomendaciones en prevención son: restricción del uso de inhibidores de la bomba de protones, profilaxis primaria con probióticos en usuarios de antimicrobianos de corto plazo, educación del personal de salud, aislamiento de contacto en pacientes hospitalizados con DACD y aseo de las habitaciones expuestas a C. difficile con productos en base a cloro o peróxido de hidrógeno. En el diagnóstico se recomienda: el uso de técnicas basadas en biología molecular y como alternativa algoritmos en base a glutamato deshidrogenasa. Con respecto al tratamiento, se recomienda el uso de metronidazol oral en DACD leve-moderada y vancomicina oral en DACD grave. El tratamiento de la primera recurrencia es con los mismos antimicrobianos de acuerdo a la gravedad, considerando en la segunda recurrencia y posteriores terapia prolongada con vancomicina, rifaximina o trasplante de microbiota fecal. Conclusión: Se presenta el primer consenso chileno en prevención, diagnóstico y tratamiento de DACD, paso trascendental en mejorar los estándares locales en el manejo de esta enfermedad.

[Risk factor of intestinal colonization with vancomycin resistant Enterococcus spp in hospitalized pediatric patients with oncological disease]. / Factores de riesgo de colonización por Enterococcus spp resistente a vancomicina en pacientes pediátricos hospitalizados con patología oncológica.

BACKGROUND: The isolation of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus spp (ERV) has increased significantly within the last few years, along with the risk of infection and dissemination of these bacteria. Our aim was to determine risk factors (RF) for intestinal colonization in hospitalized pediatric patients with oncological disease at Hospital de Niños Roberto del Río. METHODS: Between January 2012 and December 2013 a transversal study was performed with 107 rectal swabs and processed with a PCR for ERV. The patients were classified as "colonized with ERV" and "not colonized with ERV" and we evaluated possible RF for intestinal colonization in both groups. RESULTS: VRE colonization was found in 51 patients (52%). The median of time elapsed between oncological diagnosis and VRE colonization was 35 days. The significant RF associated with VRE colonization were days of hospitalization prior to study, neutropenia and treatment with antibiotics within 30 days prior to study and mucositis. CONCLUSIONS: According to the RF revealed in this study we may suggest prevention standards to avoid ERV colonization. This is the first investigation in our country in hospitalized pediatric patients with oncological disease and processed with a multiplex PCR for ERV, therefore it is a great contribution about this subject in Chile.